On the basis of actively retreating glaciers and other criteria, the potentially dangerous glacial lakes were identified using the spatial and attribute database complemented by multi-temporal remote-sensing data sets. Medium- to large-scale aerial photographs were used for detailed geomorphic studies and evaluation of the active glaciers and potentially dangerous lakes.

In general, based on geomorphological characteristics, glacial lakes can be grouped into three types: glacial erosion lakes, glacial cirque lakes, and moraine-dammed lakes. The former two types of glacial lakes occupy the lowlands or emptying cirques eroded by ancient glaciers. These glacial lakes are more or less located away from present-day glaciers and the downstream banks are usually made of bedrock or covered with a thinner layer of loose sediment. Both of these glacial lakes do not generally pose an outburst danger. On the other hand, the moraine-dammed glacial lakes have the potential for bursting. A standard index to define a lake that is a source of potential danger because of possible bursting does not exist.

Moraine-dammed glacial lakes, which are still in contact or very near to the glaciers, are usually dangerous. In most of the literature/reports, the term ‘glacial lake’ is used for such lakes, and the term ‘glacial lakes’ used for glacier erosion lakes and glacier cirque lakes. The present study defines all the lakes formed by the activity of glaciers as ‘glacial lakes’. Moraine-dammed glacial lakes are usually dangerous. These glacial lakes were partly formed between present-day glaciers and Little Ice Age moraine. The depositions of Little Ice Age moraines are usually about 300 years old, form high and narrow arch-shaped ridges usually with a height of 20–150m, and often contain dead glacier ice layers beneath them. These end moraines are loose and unstable in nature. The advance and retreat of the glacier affect the hydrology between the present-day glacier and the lake dammed by the moraines. Sudden natural phenomena with a direct effect on a lake, like ice avalanches or rock and lateral moraine material collapsing on a lake, cause moraine breaches with subsequent lake outburst events. Such phenomena have been well known in the past in several cases of moraine-dammed lakes, although the mechanisms at play are not fully understood.

Criteria for Identification

The criteria for identifying the potentially dangerous glacial lakes are based on field observations, processes and records of past events, geomorphological and geo-technical characteristics of the lake and surroundings, and other physical conditions. The potentially dangerous lakes were identified based on the condition of lakes, dams, associated mother glaciers, and topographic features around the lakes and glaciers.

Rise in lake water level

In general the lakes which have a volume of more than 0.01 km3 are found to have past events. A lake which has a larger volume than this, is deeper, with a deeper part near the dam (lower part of lake) rather than near the glacier tongue, and has rapid increase in lake water volume is an indication that a lake is potentially dangerous.

Activity of supraglacial lakes

Groups of closely spaced supraglacial lakes of smaller size at glacier tongues merge as time passes and form bigger lakes. These activities of supraglacial lakes are an indication that the lakes are becoming potentially dangerous.

Position of lakes

The potentially dangerous lakes are generally at the lower part of the ablation area of the glacier near to the end moraine, and the mother glacier should be sufficiently large to create a potentially dangerous lake environment. Regular monitoring needs to be carried out for such lakes with the help of multi-temporal satellite images, aerial photographs, and field observations.

In general, the potentially dangerous status of moraine-dammed lakes can be defined by the conditions of the damming material and the nature of the mother glacier. The valley lakes with an area bigger than 0.1 sq.km and a distance less than 0.5 km from the mother glacier of considerable size are considered to be potentially dangerous. Cirque lakes even smaller than 0.1 sq.km associated (in contact or distance less than 0.5 km) with steep hanging glaciers are considered to be potentially dangerous. Even the smaller size steep hanging glacier may pose a danger to the lake.

Dam conditions

The natural conditions of the moraine damming the lake determine the lake stability. Lake stability will be less if the moraine dam has a combination of the following characteristics:

  • narrower in the crest area
  • no drainage outflow or outlet not well defined
  • steeper slope of the moraine walls
  • ice cored
  • very tall (from toe to crest)
  • mass movement or potential mass movement in the inner slope and/or outer slope
  • breached and closed in the past and refilled again with water
  • seepage flow at moraine walls

A moraine-dammed lake, which has breached and closed subsequently in the past and has refilled again with water, can breach again. Ayaco Lake in the Pumqu Basin burst out in 1968, 1969, and 1970, and in 1980s it was refilled again with water and poses danger. In fact, there is a less water volume than before, based on the ASTER image of Feb. 21 and Oct. 13, 2001. So, regular monitoring of such lakes is necessary using multi-temporal satellite images.

Condition of associated mother glacier

Generally, the bigger valley glaciers with tongues reaching an elevation below 5,000 masl have well-developed glacial lakes. Even the actively retreating and steep hanging glaciers on the banks of lakes may be a potential cause of danger. The following general characteristics of associated mother glaciers can create danger to moraine-dammed lakes:

  • hanging glacier in contact with the lake,
  • bigger glacier area,
  • fast retreating,
  • debris cover at glacier tongue area,
  • steep gradient at glacier tongue area,
  • presence of crevasses and ponds at glacier tongue area,
  • toppling/collapses of glacier masses at the glacier tongue, and
  • ice blocks draining to lake.
  • hanging glacier in contact with the lake

Physical conditions of surroundings

Besides moraines, mother glaciers, and lake conditions, other physical conditions of the surrounding area as given below may also cause the lake to be potentially dangerous:

  • potential rockfall/slide (mass movements) site around the lake which can fall into the lake suddenly
  • snow avalanches of large size around the lake which can fall into the lake suddenly
  • neo-tectonic and earthquake activities around or near the lake area
  • climatic conditions of successive years being a relatively wet and cold year followed by a hot and wet or hot and arid year
  • very recent moraines damming the lake at the tributary glaciers that used to be just a part of a former complex of valley glacier middle moraines as a result of the fast retreat of a complex mother valley glacier
  • sudden advance of a glacier towards the lower tributary or mother glacier having a well-developed lake at its tongue

Major Glacial Lakes Associated with the Glaciers

For identification of potentially dangerous glacial lakes, the glacial lakes associated with glaciers like supraglacial lakes and/or dammed by lateral moraine or end moraine with an area larger than 0.02 sq.km have been considered and they have been defined as major glacial lakes. The area of the inventoried glacial lakes is larger than 0.003 sq.km. There are 824 such glacial lakes in the Himalayan-China Region. Among these lakes, 199 glacial lakes having an area larger than 0.02 sq.km. Most of the major glacial lakes are in contact with or at a distance of less than 500m away from the glaciers and some of them are 1,500m away from the glaciers.

Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers were shown in the Tables (from Table11.1, to Table 11.8)

Table 11.1: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in the Jiazhagangge basin

Lake
Number

Lake name

Elevation
(masl)

Type

Area
(
m2)

Associated glacier No.

Distance to
Glacier (m)

Jiazhagangge_2

 

5200

M

54509.898

 

0

Jiazhagangge_3

 

5400

M

34642.965

 

0

Jiazhagangge_4

 

5400

M

21294.359

 

0

Jiazhagangge_7

 

5410

M

36408.766

 

0

Jiazhagangge_8

 

5600

M

22262.645

 

0

Jiazhagangge_9

 

5420

M

63449.969

 

0

Jiazhagangge_10

 

5400

M

47456.273

 

0

Jiazhagangge_12

 

5500

M

63086.309

 

0

Jiazhagangge_13

 

5500

M

68921.520

 

0

Jiazhagangge_14

 

5540

M

24313.445

 

0


Table 11.2: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in the Daoliqu basin

Lake
Number

Lake name

Elevation
(masl)

Type

Area
(
m2)

Associated
glacier No.

Distance to
Glacier (m)

Daoliqu_1

 

4900

M

85526.152

 

0

Daoliqu_2

 

5500

M

20294.750

 

0

Daoliqu_2

 

5010

M

33157.367

 

0

Daoliqu_3

 

5200

M

93291.242

 

0

Daoliqu_4

 

4970

M

83141.234

 

0


Table 11.3: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in the Majiacangbu basin

Lake Number Lake name

Elevation
(masl)

Type Area (m2) Associated
glacier No.

Distance toGlacier (m)

Majiacangbu_4

5200

M

16583.555

122

Majiacangbu_6

5280

M

100395.359

Majiacangbu_7

5100

M

444399.781

137

Majiacangbu_10_06

4740

S

22738.891

Majiacangbu_11

5260

E

10647.141

Majiacangbu_12

5300

E

18044.191

Majiacangbu_13

5200

E

270137.000

Majiacangbu_14

5240

E

9720.000

Majiacangbu_15

5220

E

24662.551

Majiacangbu_17

5220

E

624406.375

Majiacangbu_18

5500

E

38321.016

Majiacangbu_20

5820

C

115527.563

877

Majiacangbu_21

5460

V

24222.047

Majiacangbu_22

5580

E

40947.148

Majiacangbu_23

5820

V

23936.281

Majiacangbu_24

5600

V

64860.352

Majiacangbu_29

5400

E

13529.707

535

Majiacangbu_35

5760

C

75447.922

Majiacangbu_36

5760

C

112178.609

475

Majiacangbu_37

5620

E

54199.594

289

Majiacangbu_40

5570

M

127984.016

Majiacangbu_43

5390

M

21858.672

22

Majiacangbu_45

5650

M

174273.031

Majiacangbu_47

5740

C

285980.688

76

Majiacangbu_50

5640

M

80668.539

19

Majiacangbu_51

5580

M

105701.484

30

Majiacangbu_52

5520

V

62516.578

463

Majiacangbu_54

5530

M

274859.750

Majiacangbu_55

5460

M

86256.875

94

Majiacangbu_56

5430

M

72709.148

20

Majiacangbu_57

5230

M

263174.969

297

Majiacangbu_58

5420

M

121215.836

229

Majiacangbu_59

5340

M

451944.594

Majiacangbu_60

5300

M

35973.516

282

Majiacangbu_61

5580

E

21643.500

329

Majiacangbu_63

5420

M

51884.430

291


Table 11.4: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in the Jilongcangbu basin

Lake
Number

Lake name

Elevation
(masl)

Type

Area
(
m2)

Associated
glacier No.

Distance to
Glacier (m)

Jilongcangbu_2

 

5470

M

75547.453

35

0

Jilongcangbu_24

 

5460

M

218432.887

60

103

Jilongcangbu_25

 

4760

M

55114.688

61

0

Jilongcangbu_26

 

5130

M

27780.355

65

106

Jilongcangbu_27

 

5060

M

36228.043

66

250

Jilongcangbu_28

 

4500

M

88078.664

72

161

Jilongcangbu_33

 

4740

M

37840.582

96

0

Jilongcangbu_34

 

4750

M

84860.887

97

150

Jilongcangbu_39

 

4640

M

94876.617

104

0

Jilongcangbu_40

 

5000

M

34420.484

106

0

Jilongcangbu_42

 

4520

M

21931.719

110

0

Jilongcangbu_44

 

4440

M

163726.547

112

427

Jilongcangbu_45

 

4440

M

85468.496

113

0

Jilongcangbu_46

 

4710

M

83977.621

115

91

Jilongcangbu_47

 

4760

M

84818.227

118

0

Jilongcangbu_48

 

4440

M

424676.266

120

340

Jilongcangbu_49

 

5240

M

26131.758

145

0

Jilongcangbu_5

 

5230

M

35474.051

42

0

Jilongcangbu_51

 

5260

M

62340.711

 

143

Jilongcangbu_56

 

4420

M

112087.586

156

0

Jilongcangbu_65

 

5040

M

28077.102

175

253

Jilongcangbu_66

 

5340

M

61747.719

179

254

Jilongcangbu_67

 

5240

M

62909.023

178

89


Table 11.5: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in the Poiqu basin

Lake
Number

Lake name

Elevation
(masl)

Type

Area
(
m2)

Associated
glacier No.

Distance to
Glacier (m)

Poiqu_11

 

5600

M

20426.211

25

952

Poiqu_15

 

5320

M

67326.074

26

1430

Poiqu_23

 

5110

M

190116.684

33

171

Poiqu_26

 

5100

M

3136591.234

37

0

Poiqu_45

 

5220

M

261166.590

42

86

Poiqu_46

 

5300

M

113020.148

44

128

Poiqu_47

 

5340

M

93728.281

45

256

Poiqu_49

 

5400

M

144313.371

46

242

Poiqu_54

 

5290

M

3373971.188

47

0

Poiqu_58

 

5590

M

44916.813

57

0

Poiqu_59

 

5560

M

168281.918

65

0

Poiqu_6

 

4370

M

174912.930

20

431

Poiqu_60

 

5360

M

371695.113

74

0

Poiqu_61

 

5360

M

26423.887

77,78

2564

Poiqu_63

 

5510

M

610468.742

77,78

0

Poiqu_64

 

5560

M

228631.520

82

150

Poiqu_65

 

5380

M

594534.387

85

0

Poiqu_66

 

5360

M

161223.844

86

40

Poiqu_67

 

5260

M

239204.992

89

356

Poiqu_7

 

4760

M

41795.320

22

100

Poiqu_82

 

4660

M

198277.348

113

467

Poiqu_9

 

5620

M

28406.930

25

422


Table 11.6: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in the Pumqu basin

Lake
Number

Lake name

Elevation
(masl)

Type

Area
(
m2)

Associated
glacier No.

Distance to
Glacier (m)

Pumqu_A_6

 

4520

M

323329.852

13

183

Pumqu_B_18

 

4880

M

249095.203

10

0

Pumqu_B_19

 

5660

M

607776.406

21

0

Pumqu_B_20

 

5760

M

42344.344

22

277

Pumqu_B_21

 

5540

M

109258.676

28

550

Pumqu_B_22

 

5740

M

26820.324

35

188

Pumqu_B_23

 

5520

M

180811.164

37

1255

Pumqu_B_24

 

5520

M

60868.234

37

796

Pumqu_C_12

 

5780

M

20785.660

175

494

Pumqu_C_3

 

5060

M

150840.078

5

138

Pumqu_C_5

 

5740

M

24062.539

39

934

Pumqu_D_1

 

5620

M

54898.176

12

480

Pumqu_D_11

 

5800

M

37886.203

43

377

Pumqu_D_12

 

5130

M

1261710.348

62

0

Pumqu_D_13

 

5120

M

47060.957

62

1885

Pumqu_D_21

 

5540

M

311191.004

80

586

Pumqu_D_22

 

5640

M

52745.582

82

195

Pumqu_D_23

 

5620

M

47816.902

90

411

Pumqu_D_25

 

5560

M

50361.320

92

540

Pumqu_D_26

 

5520

M

180939.219

98

0

Pumqu_D_27

 

5560

M

158659.488

102

0

Pumqu_D_28

 

5530

M

575223.852

109

0

Pumqu_D_30

 

5380

M

4135052.359

116

0

Pumqu_D_5

 

5680

M

105327.086

21

497

Pumqu_E_2

 

5580

M

213555.891

7

249

Pumqu_G_1

 

5800

M

79914.852

7

34

Pumqu_G_10

 

5100

M

380861.492

25,26

500

Pumqu_G_11

 

5290

M

508882.359

28

0

Pumqu_G_12

 

5370

M

478298.086

31

0

Pumqu_G_13

 

5260

M

308047.141

32

0

Pumqu_G_14

 

5380

M

121814.117

36

239

Pumqu_G_15

 

5240

M

83987.180

37

132

Pumqu_G_16

 

5520

M

913580.461

91

0

Pumqu_G_17

 

5590

M

722764.633

96

0

Pumqu_G_18

 

5840

M

68949.859

100

90

Pumqu_G_19

 

5390

M

1112609.695

106,107,108

0

Pumqu_G_2

 

5600

M

105100.492

8

631

Pumqu_G_20

 

5630

M

65149.953

111

486

Pumqu_G_21

 

5500

M

48913.328

112,113

615

Pumqu_G_22

 

5570

M

47280.383

112,113

69

Pumqu_G_24

 

5120

M

23969.344

121

2136

Pumqu_G_25

 

5140

M

747675.188

121

0

Pumqu_G_26

 

5210

M

664339.641

122

582

Pumqu_G_27

 

5520

M

117785.813

124

382

Pumqu_G_28

 

5730

M

26749.703

127

395

Pumqu_G_31

 

5640

M

44012.305

128

191

Pumqu_G_32

 

5620

V

79747.234

128

976

Pumqu_G_33

 

5600

V

207492.063

128

1621

Pumqu_G_34

 

5660

M

79410.102

135

217

Pumqu_G_35

 

5700

M

99144.000

137

372

Pumqu_G_37

 

5400

M

190377.039

150

43

Pumqu_G_38

 

5500

M

545509.766

152

0

Pumqu_G_39

 

5640

M

21314.016

153

711

Pumqu_G_40

 

5580

M

34489.820

159

665

Pumqu_G_6

 

5260

M

213563.320

15

249

Pumqu_G_7

 

5520

M

38923.109

20

189

Pumqu_G_8

 

5240

M

538032.070

22

263

Pumqu_G_9

 

5300

M

64239.773

24

159

Pumqu_H_16

 

5500

M

846200.234

21

153

Pumqu_H_17

 

5260

M

227740.625

22

110

Pumqu_H_18

 

5410

M

67753.125

23

0

Pumqu_H_19

 

5350

M

73880.883

25

95

Pumqu_H_25

 

5340

M

174391.227

35

0

Pumqu_H_26

 

5030

M

836525.602

37

0

Pumqu_H_27

 

4840

V

109990.914

44

5391

Pumqu_H_29

 

4880

V

341585.375

44

2358

Pumqu_H_30

 

5320

M

183870.578

42

0

Pumqu_H_33

 

5200

M

371096.040

44

0

Pumqu_H_37

 

5150

M

62392.891

46

0

Pumqu_H_39

 

5200

M

31450.328

51

0

Pumqu_H_40

 

5180

M

29962.813

52

79

Pumqu_H_41

 

5210

M

77771.734

52

0

Pumqu_H_42

 

5360

M

65760.984

55

0

Pumqu_H_48

 

5180

M

182022.859

57

452

Pumqu_H_49

 

5160

M

78079.023

59

86

Pumqu_H_50

 

5040

M

161787.305

60

92

Pumqu_H_54

 

4830

M

43872.039

64

196

Pumqu_H_9

 

5680

M

100992.383

2

113

Pumqu_I_12

 

5200

M

33367.430

15

260

Pumqu_I_13

 

5060

M

172781.492

17

314

Pumqu_I_16

 

5182

M

594393.570

20

72

Pumqu_I_17

 

4960

V

1458918.719

22

2161

Pumqu_I_18

 

5080

M

315869.459

22

60

Pumqu_I_24

 

5240

M

47510.484

26

695

Pumqu_I_25

 

5240

M

128968.148

26

215

Pumqu_I_28

 

5690

M

44505.227

34

0

Pumqu_I_33

 

5290

M

249191.391

42

0

Pumqu_I_34

 

5100

M

901023.234

48

0

Pumqu_I_35

 

5330

M

22635.258

52

0

Pumqu_I_37

 

5240

M

101773.477

55

144

Pumqu_I_40

 

5360

M

132085.383

62

91

Pumqu_I_50

 

5170

M

37941.875

73

109

Pumqu_I_55

 

4880

M

80342.797

74

424


Table 11.7: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in the Rongxer basin

Lake
Number

Lake name

Elevation
(masl)

Type

Area
(
m2)

Associated
glacier No.

Distance to
Glacier (m)

Rongxer Qu_B_12

 

5420

M

30792.816

9

376

Rongxer Qu_B_15

 

5340

M

117012.414

14

72

Rongxer Qu_B_16

 

5340

M

167321.137

19

0

Rongxer Qu_B_17

 

5450

M

44328.441

20

73

Rongxer Qu_B_18

 

5420

M

40069.227

21

33

Rongxer Qu_B_19

 

5380

M

38957.609

24

181

Rongxer Qu_B_23

 

5240

M

40724.531

27

768

Rongxer Qu_B_24

 

5190

M

52872.102

29

0

Rongxer Qu_B_30

 

5280

M

27543.676

37

397

Rongxer Qu_B_46

 

5390

M

260082.199

55

381

Rongxer Qu_B_47

 

5280

M

74474.289

58

195

Rongxer Qu_B_52

 

5270

M

255866.973

65

298

Rongxer Qu_B_7

 

5340

M

122856.172

6

120

Rongxer Qu_C_21

 

5360

M

182961.746

24

121

Rongxer Qu_C_28

 

5350

M

242590.273

34

0

Rongxer Qu_C_29

 

5340

M

28999.281

34

891

Rongxer Qu_C_39

 

5050

M

557639.969

47

0

Rongxer Qu_C_43

 

5110

M

793293.465

56

0

Rongxer Qu_C_53

 

5370

M

79242.992

74

186

Rongxer Qu_C_55

 

5240

M

533354.059

75

0

Rongxer Qu_C_57

 

5080

M

320532.637

76

0

Rongxer Qu_C_58

 

4980

M

27609.633

76

84

Rongxer Qu_C_61

 

4700

M

23613.133

85

106

Rongxer Qu_C_67

 

5100

M

114723.695

91

0

Rongxer Qu_C_68

 

5170

M

652607.195

91

0

Rongxer Qu_C_69

 

5100

M

50855.555

91

0

Rongxer Qu_C_70

 

5200

M

72937.059

92

0

Rongxer Qu_C_71

 

5100

M

322636.543

92

0

Rongxer Qu_C_8

 

5160

M

54339.563

15

263


Table 11.8: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in the Zangbuqin basin

Lake
Number

Lake name

Elevation
(masl)

Type

Area
(
m2)

Associated
glacier No.

Distance to
Glacier (m)

Zangbuqin_2

 

5390

M

24469.109

25

238

Zangbuqin_5

 

4770

M

94743.191

62

41

Potentially Dangerous Glacial Lakes

Based on the analysis of inventory data using different criteria and the study of satellite images, 77 glacial lakes are identified as potentially dangerous lakes in the Himalayan-China Region. Out of these there are three glacial lakes (i.e. Gelhaipuco, Ayaco, and Jinco) with past outburst events. The identified potentially dangerous lakes are recommended for further detailed investigation and field survey to understand their activity (Table 11.9).

Table 11.9: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes of Himalaya - China Region identified from the inventory and recommended for further investigation and field survey

Lake number

Longitude

Latitude

Altitude(masl)

Length (m)

Area (m2)

Jiazhaganggequ basin

Jiazhaganggequ_2

 

 

5200

270

54509.90

Majiacangbu

Majiacangbu_7

 

 

5100

1159

444399.79

Majiacangbu_6

 

 

5280

494

100395.36

Majiacangbu_40

 

 

5570

567

127984.02

Majiacangbu_45

 

 

5650

590

174273.03

Majiacangbu_51

 

 

5580

587

105701.48

Majiacangbu_54

 

 

5530

712

274859.75

Majiacangbu_55

 

 

5460

324

86256.88

Majiacangbu_56

 

 

5430

427

72709.15

Majiacangbu_57

 

 

5230

951

263174.97

Majiacangbu_58

 

 

5420

620

121215.84

Majiacangbu_59

 

 

5340

1447

451944.60

Jilongcangbu basin

Jilongcangbu_24

85°24.61 ’E

28°40.54 ’N

5460

806

218432.89

Jilongcangbu_48

85°31.14 ’E

28°28.07 ’N

4440

1238

424676.27

Poiqu basin

Poiqu_26

85°50.49 ’E

28°19.01 ’N

5100

3216

3136591.23

Poiqu_54

85°52.58 ’E

28°21.62 ’N

5290

3636

3373971.19

Poiqu_59

86°15.44 ’E

28°22.49 ’N

5560

634

168281.92

Poiqu_60

86°13.48 ’E

28°20.99 ’N

5360

1293

371695.11

Poiqu_63

86°11.47 ’E

28°20.14 ’N

5510

1416

610468.74

Poiqu_64

86°9.51 ’E

28°19.27 ’N

5560

697

228631.52

Poiqu_65

86°9.48 ’E

28°18.22 ’N

5380

2064

594534.39

Poiqu_66

86°9.09 ’E

28°17.66 ’N

5360

856

161223.84

Poiqu_67

86°7.87 ’E

28°17.64 ’N

5260

1023

239204.99

Pumqu basin

Pumqu_C_4

87°3.02 ’E

28°12.38 ’N

5090

1904

572276.72

Pumqu_D_12

86°34.91 ’E

28°11.95 ’N

5130

2429

1261710.35

Pumqu_D_28

86°22.81 ’E

28°23.72 ’N

5530

968

575223.85

Pumqu_D_30

86°18.23 ’E

28°22.64 ’N

5380

5611

4135052.36

Pumqu_G_10

88°19.25 ’E

28°0.37 ’N

5100

1429

380861.49

Pumqu_G_11

88°17.26 ’E

28°1.04 ’N

5290

1402

508882.36

Pumqu_G_12

88°15.47 ’E

28°0.67 ’N

5370

1235

478298.09

Pumqu_G_13

88°14.45 ’E

28°0.36 ’N

5260

968

308047.14

Pumqu_G_16

88°4.42 ’E

27°56.96 ’N

5520

1576

913580.46

Pumqu_G_17

88°4.03 ’E

27°56.16 ’N

5590

1387

722764.63

Pumqu_G_19

88°0.27 ’E

27°55.83 ’N

5390

3343

1112609.70

Pumqu_G_20

87°59.54 ’E

27°55.54 ’N

5630

306

65149.95

Pumqu_G_25

87°55.83 ’E

27°57.11 ’N

5140

2359

747675.19

Pumqu_G_26

87°54.49 ’E

27°57.07 ’N

5210

1755

664339.64

Pumqu_G_27

87°53.76 ’E

27°56.59 ’N

5520

596

117785.81

Pumqu_G_28

87°52.25 ’E

27°57.86 ’N

5730

384

26749.70

Pumqu_G_31

87°52.10 ’E

27°58.13 ’N

5640

357

44012.31

Pumqu_G_32

87°52.60 ’E

27°58.19 ’N

5620

800

79747.23

Pumqu_G_33

87°53.06 ’E

27°58.13 ’N

5600

727

207492.06

Pumqu_G_37

87°37.41 ’E

28°10.06 ’N

5400

675

190377.04

Pumqu_G_38

87°38.39 ’E

28°11.68 ’N

5500

1479

545509.77

Pumqu_G_39

87°38.44 ’E

28°12.29 ’N

5640

244

21314.02

Pumqu_G_8

88°21.24 ’E

28°1.42 ’N

5240

1826

538032.07

Pumqu_H_16

87°35.54 ’E

28°13.77 ’N

5500

2178

846200.23

Pumqu_H_17

87°34.65 ’E

28°13.70 ’N

5260

886

227740.63

Pumqu_H_23

87°28.27 ’E

28°12.78 ’N

4850

4655

1326268.61

Pumqu_H_25

87°33.60 ’E

28°12.39 ’N

5340

713

174391.23

Pumqu_H_26

87°33.68 ’E

28°10.70 ’N

5030

2344

836525.60

Pumqu_H_27

87°25.07 ’E

28°9.89 ’N

4840

647

109990.91

Pumqu_H_29

87°26.70 ’E

28°9.60 ’N

4880

1697

341585.38

Pumqu_H_30

87°28.77 ’E

28°10.36 ’N

5320

751

183870.58

Pumqu_H_33

87°28.13 ’E

28°8.84 ’N

5200

1156

371096.04

Pumqu_H_50

87°35.23 ’E

28°6.92 ’N

5040

663

161787.31

Pumqu_I_17

87°39.19 ’E

28°6.86 ’N

4960

2651

1458918.72

Pumqu_I_18

87°36.94 ’E

28°7.10 ’N

5080

931

315869.46

Pumqu_I_28

87°52.19 ’E

28°1.49 ’N

5690

594

44505.23

Pumqu_I_33

87°48.64 ’E

27°57.87 ’N

5290

1059

249191.39

Pumqu_I_34

87°46.21 ’E

27°55.61 ’N

5100

2594

901023.23

Rongxer basin

Rongxer Qu_B_15

86°11.20 ’E

28°16.20 ’N

5340

572

117012.41

Rongxer Qu_B_16

86°11.74 ’E

28°14.56 ’N

5340

857

167321.14

Rongxer Qu_B_17

86°12.22 ’E

28°13.66 ’N

5450

399

44328.44

Rongxer Qu_B_18

86°12.35 ’E

28°13.46 ’N

5420

368

40069.23

Rongxer Qu_B_24

86°13.41 ’E

28°10.97 ’N

5190

445

52872.10

Rongxer Qu_B_46

86°19.28 ’E

28°14.77 ’N

5390

830

260082.20

Rongxer Qu_B_7

86°9.02 ’E

28°14.96 ’N

5340

528

122856.17

Rongxer Qu_C_28

86°21.79 ’E

28°14.41 ’N

5350

1067

242590.27

Rongxer Qu_C_39

86°31.81 ’E

28°11.14 ’N

5050

1830

557639.97

Rongxer Qu_C_43

86°31.63 ’E

28°8.22 ’N

5110

2133

793293.47

Rongxer Qu_C_55

86°30.85 ’E

28°2.72 ’N

5240

1316

533354.06

Rongxer Qu_C_57

86°29.80 ’E

28°2.00 ’N

5080

954

320532.64

Rongxer Qu_C_67

86°26.17 ’E

27°56.21 ’N

5100

687

114723.70

Rongxer Qu_C_68

86°26.75 ’E

27°56.68 ’N

5170

1175

652607.20

Rongxer Qu_C_69

86°27.01 ’E

27°56.99 ’N

5100

300

50855.56

Rongxer Qu_C_71

86°26.09 ’E

27°55.74 ’N

5100

1013

322636.54